Interactive Cable Television Research
in the United States
Introduction
Numerous proposals have been made during the past: decade for broad-band
communications to deliver a vast array of services to the private
home.(1) The emergence of new technologies which can link computer
systems and communications satellites with the home has made the
potential role of broad-band communication systems even more significant.
Several experiments and studies are presently being conducted to
determine the economic, social, and technological feasibility of
providing public and private services through broad-band communications.
This paper examines some of the research and development activities
that are currently underway in the United States.
Public support for experiments in broad-band communications In
the United States has largely been provided by the National Science
Foundation, through Its Research Applied to National Needs (RANN)
program. NSF's research objectives have been concentrated on analyzing
the range and type of services which can be efficiently and effectively
delivered through broad-band communications. In 1974, the National
Science Foundation Issued a request for proposals for design studies
to test the delivery of public services over two-way cable television,
which would be conducted by consortia of research organizations,
cable television companies, and local governments. Approximately
50 organizations responded to the NSF solicitation and of these,
seven planning grants were awarded. In 1975, three institutions
were awarded grants to implement their proposed experiments; the
Rand Corporation, Michigan State University, and New York University.(2)
The three experiments together provide a systematic and coordinated
body of data about the application of two-way cable television to
the public sector. Each experiment focuses on an Important service
delivery activity and applies a distinctive type of broad-band communications
to the service provision function.
The Rand Corporation - Spartanburg, South Carolina
This project is being conducted by the Rand Corporation in Spartanburg,
South Carolina under the direction of Dr. William Lucas. It evaluates
three applications of interactive cable: adult education, in-service
day care training, and senior citizen programming. The Spartanburg
system, which is owned and operated by Telecable, uses a simple
cable with low-band split for the return.
The first application is designed to assess the potential of two-way
cable television in the provision of adult education In a community
which has a relatively low educational level. It was designed to
serve as a means of overcoming time, transportation, and psychological
barriers to adult education as well. The adult education application
used a General Education Development (GED) program in which adults
enroll in a fifteen-week course to prepare for a GED. examination
administered by the state. Successful passage of the exam results
in a GED degree, which is equivalent to a secondary school diploma.
The experiment utilized home terminals capable of sending return
data signals. Students could interact with teachers via a hand-held
terminal with eight touch-tone buttons designated for specific tasks,
such as "explain," or "slow down."
The research design allowed comparisons to be made between a conventional
classroom course and in-home interactive cable television. Both
groups of adults used the same texts and received the same instruction.
The findings of the standardized tests show that the two-way cable
program was as successful as the conventional classroom, Furthermore,
Lucas found that, despite the physical separation of teacher and
student, "genuine human communication...was indeed achieved."(3)
In an analysis of the Rand experiment, the authors conclude that
return data communications are a remarkably powerful educational
tool.
Large classes can be taught, and the teacher can use responses
to alter the content and pacing of the course so that it helps the
entire class. Because all the students respond, the teacher has
student behavior that can be reinforced to motivate learning. Since
all students can and are required to respond to questions, the use
of data terminals appears to strengthen and structure attention.
Even In the area of Imitation and. modeling, return data Is quite
appropriate when the purpose is to present information that will
be tested in a structured way.(4)
The in-service day care training component of the Rand project
uses return video and audio broad-band communications. This application
tests the capacity of two-way video to provide day care training
In a group context. It is designed to train the staff of day care
centers in program development and adult-child interaction. A major
emphasis is on improving "the transactions between care-givers and
children on both cognitive and affective levels."(5) Eight day care
centers were equipped with cameras and modulators and had the capacity
to originate picture and voice signals on a return broad-band channel.
Eight other centers were given one-way programming with no return
capacity. The control group consisted of six child care centers
located outside the cable area. A sixteen week training program
was conducted for one hour a day, five days a week. Training activities
were conducted from either the studio or one of the day care centers.
The preliminary findings from the day care training application
"confirm the difficulty of using return video and voice effectively."(6)
Both experimental groups who viewed the cable workshops showed greater
improvements than the control group. However, as the authors state,
"there were no differences between the experimental groups, ...for
those without cameras learned as much as those with cameras who
had participated with return video and voice communications."(7)
In reviewing the child care training application, a variety of factors
were found to limit the expected benefits of return video when compared
with one-way television transmission.
The senior citizen application involves a neighborhood center equipped
with portable video equipment. Senior citizens operate the equipment
and conduct regular programs. The preliminary findings suggest that
this application has reduced isolation among the elderly. Moreover,
it has strong community support and reflects the important market
for broad-band services to the elderly.
Michigan State University - Rockford, Illinois
The Michigan State University project, being conducted in Rockford,
Illinois, is under the direction of Professor Thomas Baldwin.(8)
The experiment tests the in-service training of fire fighters through
the Rockford Cablevision two-way cable television system. Firefighters
are being trained in pre-fire planning, through a system which uses
televised videotape instruction, a Jerrold SX-2 converter modified
by Coaxial Scientific Corporation to permit digital response, and
a minicomputer. The cable distribution plant is continuously scanned
to register responses at the head-end, a minicomputer and supporting
equipment logs in participants, controls the outgoing videotape
program, generates questions, waits for responses from all participants,
displays results, and prints copies of performance records.
The training program consists of a series of twelve prepackaged
videotapes, each of 35 minutes length, using programmed instruction.
Questions are asked about every two minutes throughout the lesson.
For experimental purposes, the firefighters are separated into four
groups. One group after watching programs, responds with paper and
pencil. The next group views the lessons together and makes a single
response to each question on the two-way terminal. The third group
views the lessons individually and responds individually on the
terminal. The final group makes no response. After responses from
the groups' using two-way cable are received the answers are printed
in code on the television screen. At the end of each lesson a short
quiz is administered and the performance of each participant, both
for the specific lesson and the overall course of instruction, are
reported on the screen. At the end of the course, firefighters are
also evaluated in their actual performance of fireplanning tasks.
A distinctive aspect of the Michigan State University project is
the development of a language for setting up the lessons in a computer
format. The parameters of each lesson are determined and stored
- the types of questions, text of character generated messages,
color backgrounds, nature of feedback, correct answers, etc. A series
of programs constitutes the lesson processor which controls the
entire administration of a lesson. The times that specific operations
are to be performed are also stored in the computer. During the
lesson runs, the separately entered operations and time codes are
automatically coordinated.
These operations include starting and pausing the videotape, switching
to character generator, scanning the terminals for responses, generating
feedback, restarting the videotape, aggregating scores and making
reports. Once we begin the lesson, everything from the log-in through
the final summary report is automatic.(9)
The preliminary findings of the MSU project indicate that the two-way
cable television system is particularly effective for administrative
functions. Firefighter training has traditionally been conducted
in local station houses under the direction of company officers.
This often results in substantial variation in the quality of instruction
and development of a separate training program for each unit. The
two-way cable television system, "automates much of the monitoring
and record-keeping as well as standardizing the instruction so that
the training department knows precisely what has been presented
and learned."(10)
In addition to the MSU firefighter training experiment in Rockford,
the National Science Foundation is supporting a similar project
to provide in-service training for elementary school teachers in
Rockford. The teacher training project is being conducted by the
University of Michigan which uses essentially the same hardware
and program format as the firefighter application.
New York University - Reading, Pennsylvania
The New York University project is being conducted in Reading,
Pennsylvania in collaboration with the ATC-Berks TV Cable Company
and local public organizations. It is designed to assess the cost
and benefits of using two-way cable to deliver public services-to
senior citizens.
The experimental cable system consists of three interconnected
neighborhood communications centers. Local government offices and
high schools are also connected to the system as are the homes of
cable subscribers. Programming over the system is designed to provide
information and referral for social services, education and training,
and citizen-government interaction.
The ATC-Berks TV Cable Company system is a 70 mile bi-directional,
dual-trunk delivery system serving 35,000 subscribers with five
low-band, 40 FM, seven high-band, and two mid-band channels with
a downstream bandwidth of 50 - 220 MHz. Upstream transmission via
a second trunk cable is a low-band return from 50 - 108 MHz.
The neighborhood communication centers are equipped with portable
television cameras and monitors which permit two-way communication
among the three centers. Initially, converters were installed in
the private homes of approximately 125 elderly citizens to allow
them to view the cable programming over their home television sets
and to participate by telephone. The positive response by home viewers
to the interactive programming led to the subsequent decision to
extend the programming to the 35,000 local cable television subscribers.
Programming consists of daily, interactive sessions which originate
from the neighborhood communication centers as well as from various
remote locations such as the City Hall, the local office of the
Social Security Administration, the County Court House, and several
high schools. The programs, which are transmitted two hours a day,
five days a week, are conceived and produced by senior citizens
and representatives of local organizations. A distinctive aspect
of the Reading project is that senior citizens participate in virtually
all aspects of the two-way cable system from planning to actual
production.
Social service programming consists of information exchange between
senior citizens and representatives of social service agencies.
A wide range of entertainment programs take place over the two-way
cable system such as quiz shows In which home viewers and participants
at the neighborhood communication centers compete for prizes.
Citizen-government interaction consists of regular, weekly programs
in which senior citizens communicate directly with elected municipal
and county officials. Senior citizens utilize these programs to
articulate their preferences about public goods and services provided
by local governmental units. Requests for information, specific
demands, and evaluations of municipal policy are made for such local
issues as street repair, water supply, housing, property taxes,
and safety. At the present time, the two-way cable system is operated
by a local, non-profit corporation, Berks Community Television,
which was created to take over the interactive cable system at the
termination of the experimental phase in February 1977. It represents
a broad range of public and private institutions in the community
and has raised funds for the continuation of the system for local
businesses, foundations, and government.
The two-way cable system serves important social and political
functions by reducing isolation and providing a forum for the elderly
to participate in local governmental processes. The diversity of
public service programming has created the equivalent of a "one-stop
service center" in which a broad range of information and referral
services are available over interactive cable rather than in a conventional
office environment.
Preliminary results suggest that the most pervasive set of effects
has been on the social and psychological health of the elderly and
in their relationships with local officials and the community at
large. Through their involvement in the cable system, senior citizens
have developed a high degree of personal efficacy. Their access
to, and control over, the public service programming have enhanced
their visibility in the community and provided a forum for communicating
in a collective setting.
The experience of the Reading cable project highlights the importance
of drawing upon a multiplicity of service delivery organizations
to carry out public service programming. The system in Reading has
aggregated a mix of users which have quite different functions and
communication needs. By allowing these local users to formulate
programs which meet their needs and those of senior citizens, the
experimental system has proven to be a viable community resource.
At the time of the NSF program solicitation, there had been much
speculation about the potential benefits of broad-band communication
to the home, but little evidence of what this technology could actually
achieve. The NSF projects fill an important gap by providing valuable
data on service delivery over two-way cable. Moreover, they point
to the limits as well as the opportunities in interactive telecommunications.
Private Sector Research And Development
A complex set of factors has limited private sector research and
development of interactive cable experiments.(11) However, a number
of private sector projects in broad-band communications to the home
have been initiated. An especially innovative two-way cable system
has been built in Woodlands, Texas by TOCOM, Inc. Woodlands is a
new planned community of 2,000 residents located 25 miles north
of Houston in which every house is wired for cable.(12)
The developer is required to provide each house with two television
outlets, a smoke detector, and four medical and police alarm buttons.
Residents can link these security devices, plus others, to a central
computer at a cost of $300.00 for the home terminal unit and a $5.00
monthly charge. Eighty percent of the residents subscribe to the
cable company's entire service package which Includes eleven channel
TV reception for $7.00 a month plus the automatic security system.
The detectors in each house are linked to the central dispatch
computer which checks in with each terminal every six seconds. If
an alarm has been set off, the computer prints out the name, address
and phone number as well as the type of alarm or emergency. The
computer system "then notifies the appropriate municipal department
automatically. Medical emergencies average a response time of three
minutes from the moment the medical alarm is triggered. The benefits
of the Woodlands two-way cable system have been seen in reduced
loss from fires, low break-in rates, and a substantially lower crime
rate.
Pay cable television offers a major opportunity for launching new
private sector applications of broad-band communications. Moreover,
the successful development of pay cable could provide the economic
and technological framework for supporting public sector applications
as well. Per-program pay cable is presently offered by only three
systems, two in Columbus, Ohio, and one in Allentown, Pennsylvania.
Telecinema In Columbus, Ohio operates a per-program pay TV system
which uses home terminals and provides four channels of pay TV programming.
The Telecinema system which reaches over 5000 subscribers, Initially
relied upon conventional movies, but has expanded programming to
include specialized adult and children's films, sports events, and
entertainment. Warmer Cable Corporation is engaged in a large-scale
experiment in two-way pay cable, in Columbus, Ohio. The Warner system
will provide two-way communication between subscribers and computer-equipped
studio facilities on 30 channels. The Warner system can restrict
access to programs, and computer-automated billing will be on a
per-program basis. Such technical and financial capability will
be important in developing new public and private uses.(13)
A five button terminal made by Pioneer of Japan, Inc. will allow
subscribers to choose programs, participate in programs, play video
games, and transmit opinions. Extensive community-oriented programming
is included in the innovative project as well as special pay TV
programs not available on broadcast television. In addition, a variety
of other services such as fire and burglar alarm connections are
planned for the Warner system.
As Wright et al. have noted, "private sector applications
of two-way CATV technology have lagged behind the public sector
because of limited research and development money in the relatively
small cable industry. Further, the industry has been preoccupied
with more Immediately-profitable commercial applications such as
pay channels."(14) The recent Court of Appeals decision overturning
Federal Communications Commission regulations of pay cable should
provide added impetus to cable growth. Private sector applications
such as in-home monitoring and surveillance, polling and marketing
research, and in-home shopping, still remain to be fully explored.
In this context, the Woodlands, Texas and Columbus, Ohio projects
represent important demonstrations of how two-way cable can be used
in conjunction with computer systems to provide public and private
services in the home. Over the long-term, the development of applications
such as electronic mail and electronic newspaper, drawing upon a
combination of new technologies, holds even greater promise.
Conclusion
The findings of the two-way cable television projects supported
by the National Science Foundation indicate that a variety of public
services can be effectively delivered over broad-band communications.
In addition, the NSF experiments suggest that there are a diversity
of user groups which can potentially benefit from new applications
of interactive cable television. More important, these studies highlight
the need for systematic consideration of the mix of technologies
and services in designing and implementing new cable television
applications.
The emergence of innovative private sector projects further substantiates
the growing role of broad-band communication services. Primarily
involving pay cable services, the private sector applications should
ultimately provide the framework for adding public services to cable
systems. In this context, the NSF research should be particularly
useful in determining the range and type of interactive services
that can be effectively delivered over broad-band communications.
The attractiveness of broad-band communications will be notably
enhanced by the development of new technologies such as optical
fibers and satellite distribution systems. Such technologies will,
play a critical major role in expanding broad-band communications,
services to both the home and the community. The formulation of
public policies which can effectively guide and coordinate the new
applications is essential if the full potential of interactive television
is to be realized.
The regulatory constraints imposed on the development of cable
systems by the Federal Communications Commission are well-known.
It is equally important to recognize the barriers to new uses of
telecommunications imposed by federal, state and local units of
government with responsibility over the provision of public services.
As William Lucas has wisely noted, "federal support of telecommunications
services are fragmented throughout the federal establishment to
an extent that inhibits, or perhaps prohibits, the development,
of an aggregated systems view of services."(15) At the state and
local level, there are often few incentives for public sector bureaucracies
to incorporate new forms of telecommunications in their on-going
service delivery functions. Although broad-band communications has
enormous potential for improving the quality of services, the structure
and procedures of public organizations can pose serious obstacles
to technological innovation and change.
In order to overcome such institutional constraints, Lucas recommends
a dual set of federal initiatives "to foster the capacity of federal
agencies concerned with service delivery to plan and to implement
equitable and efficient uses of telecommunications, and...to strengthen
the capacity of local governments and service agencies to use telecommunications
both for the enhancement of community awareness and Information
and for the delivery of local services."(16)
Thus policies for the development of broad-band communications
must address organizational, as well as economic and technological
issues. Such policies should be designed to encourage new forms
of public-private cooperation in the application of interactive
telecommunications to service delivery. More important, a continuing
process of research and development which draws upon the combined
resources of both the public and private sector is necessary in
order to fully explore the capacity of broad-band communications.
Notes
1. For example, see Paul Baran, Potential Market Demand for Two-Way
Information Services to the Home. Institute for the Future, R-26,
December 1971, and Sloan Commission on Cable Television, On The
Air; The Television of Abundance, McGraw-Hill
2. For a detailed discussion of social service applications of
cable television and of the design proposals submitted to the National
Science Foundation, see Peg Kay, Social Services and Cable TV, Report
prepared for the National Science Foundation, RANN, U.S. Government
Printing Office, July, 1976. A summary of the three NSF experiments
is contained in The Access Workbook, Supplement 1; Three Experiments
in Public Service Uses of Cable Television Funded by The National
Science Foundation, Alternate Media Center, New York University,
January, 1976.
3. Fifth Annual Telecommunications Policy Research Conference:
A Summary of Proceedings, Airlie, Va., May, 1977, p. 53. For a further
discussion of the adult education application, see William Lucas,
Moving From Two-Way Cable Technology To Educational Interaction,
Rand Corporation, 1976.
4. Judith S. Bazemore and William A. Lucas, "The Functions of Return
Telecommunications For Educational Programming," Rand Corporation,
April, 1977, p. 11.
5. Ibid., p. 8.
6. Ibid., p. 11.
7. Ibid., p. 12.
8. This section draws largely on a paper by Thomas Baldwin, "A
Systematic Plan for Realization of a Full-Service Two-Way Cable
System; Four Generations of Technology and Applications," paper
presented to a symposium sponsored by Hunchner Kreis, Munich, Germany,
April, 1977.
9. Ibid., p. 4.
10. Ibid., p. 6.
11. For a discussion of the factors constraining private sector
initiatives, see, J.B. Wright, M.P. Block and D.S. McVoy, "An Evolutionary
Approach to the Development of Two-Way Cable Technology Communication,"
IEEE Transactions on Cable Television, Vol. CATV-2, No. 1, January,
1977.
12. "Two-Way Cable TV Protects America's Safest Town," Popular
Science, July, 1977, p. 70-71.
13. "Warner Cable Introduces New Two-Way Partcipatory TV," Communications
News, June, 1977, p. 65.
14. Wright et al, p. 53.
15. William A. Lucas, Social Applications of the New Electronic
abundance, paper prepared for the Aspen Institute's Communications
Task Force, August, 1977.
16. Ibid., p. 27.
Originally published in Telecommunications
and
Economic Development, Vol. II
Paper Presented at the First International Telecommunication
Exposition,
Atlanta, GA, October 1977